Appalachian Roots
On the global stage, country music has long been associated with traditionalism, rural life, and a conservative ideology rooted in the culture of the American South. The genre’s origins trace back more than a century, echoing the struggles and stories of exploited laborers—formerly enslaved Black Americans, farmers, and miners—in a segregated society built on stolen lands. While the first official country music recordings emerged in 1927, the layered strings, twangs, and repetitive melodies were already resonating across Southern Appalachia nearly a century earlier.
Country music's distinctive sound blends British Folk traditions with Gospel and Blues influences, enriched by the banjo from West Africa and Scotch-Irish yodeling practice. Early 20th-century record companies branded this music as “Hillbilly” records for White performers and “Race” records for Black artists, reinforcing racial divides in the Jim Crow South. As it matured, the genre became tied to a White, male, Christian, conservative identity, often overshadowing the diverse voices that shaped its traditions. Despite this, country music remains unique in its deep connection to American politics, charting a century of wars, protests, and social change, capturing pride and pain while reflecting a dual history of oppression and resilience.
Authenticity: What makes country music country?
There is an enduring debate about what makes country, “country.” Is it the storytelling, the southern twang of vocals, or the distinct use of strings? For some, authenticity demands an artist’s connection to a working-class, rural background. For others, it’s simply the evocation of themes like rurality, conservatism, and traditional family values. Hank Williams famously remarked, “You have to plow a lot of ground and look at the backside of a mule for a lot of years to sing a country song.”
Country music often idealizes the simple life: pristine rural landscapes and traditional values all wrapped up in the imagery of idyllic family farms. Yet, it is deeply intertwined with industrial economies and the exploited labor that has historically fueled them. Despite a history that enshrines racist ideologies and periods of violence, the country music industry has largely avoided reckoning with this past. Some artists, however, have reclaimed the genre as an expression of resilience and resistance, rooted in the struggles of marginalized communities.
Post-Civil War: Migration and Romanticization
After the Civil War, mass migration from the South to urban centers created a broader audience for country music. For those leaving the rural South behind, fiddle-driven, layered string melodies offered a nostalgic connection to the landscapes, families, and stories of home. At the same time, southern sympathizers of the Confederacy used country’s storytelling tradition to reinforce a “Dixie” identity, characterized by racism, mistrust of authority, and pragmatism. While sonically, country music in the post-war period shared much of the same characteristics as antebellum styles, the themes and connotations of country songs were changed by a restructured society.
Fiddlin’ John Carson, a Georgian musician and early country star, epitomized this ideology. An active Ku Klux Klan member, Carson’s music often conveyed overtly racist and anti-semitic messages. His song “Little Mary Phagan” is infamously tied to the lynching of Leo Frank, a Jewish man falsely accused of murder. This dark undercurrent set a troubling precedent for the ways country music would intertwine with political ideology.
Early Recordings: Songs of Struggle and Solidarity
By the 1920s, country music had become a vehicle for expressing the frustrations of southern workers. Economic crises pushed farmers off their land and miners out of work, and the genre gave voice to their struggles. The rise of radio programs like the “WSM Barn Dance”, which later evolved into the Grand Ole Opry, helped popularize country music nationwide. Many of The Carter Family’s early recordings, such as, “No Depression in Heaven” captured the lives of working-class Americans, resonating among audiences with themes of resilience and solidarity.
"In that bright land, there'll be no hunger / No orphan children cryin' for bread / No weeping widows, toil or struggle"
Black Tennessee musician Lottie Kimbrough was an important voice in Tennessee blues and country of the 1920s. Though not much is known about Kimbrough’s life, she wrote the iconic song “Rolling Log Blues”, which has since been performed by artists like Indigenous musician Buffy Sainte-Marie.
The Great Depression and Dust Bowl Years
By 1931, most Americans owned radios, and country music became a balm for the economic despair of the Great Depression. Artists like DeFord Bailey, an African American harmonica virtuoso, brought Blues-infused “Black HIllbilly Music” to the Grand Ole Opry stage, blending rural sounds with industrial motifs in songs like “Fox Chase” and “Pan American Blues”. DeFord is accredited as the first Black country star.
Economic hardships and labor movements inspired songs like Florence Reece’s “Which Side Are You On?” Written during a coal mining conflict in Harlan County, Kentucky, the song became an anthem for labor unions, with versions from The Almanac Singers and later covers by Pete Seeger and Billy Bragg. Similarly, Merle Travis’ “Sixteen Tons” highlighted the exploitation of coal miners, drawing attention to unsafe working conditions and poverty.
Texas’ influence on country music can not be understated, and thus, Mexican music has had an undeniable impact on country sounds. Fiddling styles developed in Texas during this period echo the sounds of mariachi music, with their vibrant melodies, emotive violins, and the shared thread of poignant melancholy that defines both genres.
Politics and Patriotism
The mid-20th century saw country music’s ascension as a symbol of American identity. Billboard first established a “Country and Western” chart in 1949, and Hollywood’s fascination with the Wild West throughout the early 1900s and beyond further elevated the musical style’s popularity. Tennessee Governor Frank G. Clement proclaimed country music the voice of American patriotism, while the U.S. Armed Forces launched campaigns to export country music in both Europe and Asia as part of its cultural diplomacy.
Meanwhile, Johnny Cash shocked his label and fans when he and June recorded a live album in a penitentiary, titled "At Folsom Prison". His continued advocacy for criminal justice reform through his iconic country sound and advocacy work set a powerful precedent for political country tunes. Tammy Wynette’s “Stand by Your Man” became a rallying call for former Alabama governor, George Wallace, during his bid for presidency in the late 60s. Wallace infamously called for “segregation forever.” Conversely, Loretta Lynn’s “The Pill” represented progressivism in that same decade. It became a feminist anthem for working and rural-class women, telling the story of a woman’s liberation after receiving access to contraception.
Vietnam War Era: Country’s Divided Voice
The Vietnam War era saw country music reflect both patriotism and protest. Songs like Ernest Tubb’s “It’s For God, Country and You Mom (That’s Why I’m Fighting in Vietnam)” rallied support for the war effort, while Guy Drake’s “Welfare Cadillac” reinforced conservative sentiments. The latter tells the story of a man purchasing a Cadillac from his welfare benefits; Richard Nixon once named it as one of his favorite songs. In contrast, progressive voices in the genre used music to criticize the war and its toll, representing the forces of the counterculture movement. Johnny Cash’s “Singin’ in Viet Nam Talkin’ Blues” recounted his visit to the war zone, calling for troops to return home. Tom T. Hall’s “Mama Bake a Pie (Daddy Kill a Chicken)” poignantly narrated a disabled veteran’s struggles upon returning from war, while Skeeter Davis’s “When You Gonna Bring Our Soldiers Home?” directly implored President Nixon to end the conflict. “Feel Like I’m Fixin’ to Die Rag” was written by Joe McDonald of Country Joe and the Fish as a sarcastic critique of the Vietnam War, exemplifying country music’s preference for humor. These songs captured the era’s tensions, using country’s storytelling traditions to highlight disillusionment and hope.
The 60s and 70s also gave rise to one of country music's first Black superstars. When Charley Pride first came onto the scene in the 1960s amid Civil Rights tension, many stations pulled his music and venues refused to book him. Despite this, people were drawn to his smooth voice and gospel style. He was a trailblazer, inspiring several generations of Black country artists while remaining the only Black country star signed to a major label until the 1990s. South Carolinian Linda Martell also made waves in the 70s as the first Black woman to play the Grand Ole Opry and to make country music charts in 1970 with her single “Color Him Father”.
70s and Beyond: Race and Country Music
The 1970s ushered in a new style of Texas-grown, blues and swing-infused country from the work of artists like Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings. In this progressive, unpolished style, songs like Jennings' “Yoyos, Bozos, Bimbos, and Heroes” expressed political disillusionment throughout the 70s and 80s. Outside of his iconic music-making, Nelson publicly addressed social issues like marijuana legalization and environmental protection, later becoming heavily involved in Texas politics. The 70s also saw country’s first openly gay album. Patrick Haggerty’s 1973 Lavender Country explores themes of intimacy, discrimination, and identity in a time when they were still taboo to speak about.
"When you all come out my dears / to lavender country / And don’t you bother bout your sissy ways"
Mexican-American country star Johnny Rodriguez came onto the scene in the 70s with his Top 10 hit, “Pass Me By (If You’re Only Passing Through)”. Rodriguez became a pioneering LatinX star in Country music. Artists like Freddy Fender and Linda Ronstadt followed in his footsteps, creating a space for Latinx artists, particularly Mexican-Americans, to perform a genre their roots helped produce. Indigenous and Black artist Stoney Edwards’ “Hank and Lefty Raised My Country Soul” is a classic ode to the country music’s greats. Despite seeing a little bit of commercial success in the 1970’s, Edwards didn’t get the credit he was due in his lifetime, partly due to how he overtly addressed racism in his music.
Contemporary Country: Resistance and Reclamation
The post-9/11 era ushered in a wave of hyper-patriotic country music, epitomized by songs like Toby Keith’s “Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue” and Hank Williams Jr.’s “America Will Survive”. Yet, this period also saw the emergence of artists challenging the genre’s conservative hegemony. The Chicks (formerly the Dixie Chicks) faced backlash for criticizing President George W. Bush but stood firm, releasing “Not Ready to Make Nice” as a defiant response. Jason Isbell’s “White Man’s World” and Tyler Childers’s “Long Violent History” explore systemic racism and class struggles, reaffirming the country music’s roots in storytelling about marginalized experiences.
Darius Rucker made country music charts in the early 2000s, marking the second time a black star had ever been ranked officially, inspiring many artists in coming decades. Beyoncé made history as the first black woman to top country music charts in 2024. Today, the work of musicians like Lil Nas X, Shaboozey, Orville Peck, and Kacey Musgraves subverts traditional country tropes, exploring themes like Queer identity, Black pride, and social justice through country sounds. Musgrave’s “Follow Your Arrow” and Peck’s collaboration with Willie Nelson on“Cowboys Are Frequently Secretly Fond of Each Other” exemplify the genre’s capacity for reinvention using its storytelling roots to challenge exclusionary norms.
"And a cowboy may brag about things that he's done with his women / But the ones who brag loudest are the ones who are most likely queer"
Contemporary musicians incorporate progressive, left-wing causes in their country music by subverting traditional country ideologies and by returning to its roots—appealing to the same values of honesty, humility, hard work, and respect for the land that country music has always enshrined. Nick Shoulder’s “Won’t Fence Us In” and Oliver Anthony’s “Rich Men North of Richmond” carry on country traditions while honoring the history of oppression and roots in working-class America. Rhiannon Giddens, a Grammy-nominated North Carolinian fiddler of Black and Indigenous descent, played the banjo and viola on Beyoncé’s 2024 Cowboy Carter. Giddens is also a member of Our Native Daughters alongside Amythyst Kiah, Leyla McCalla, and Allison Russell. The group honors the history of Black identity in country music with a distinct Americana sound of cascading strings and vocals.
Artist Rissi Palmer began the Apple Music Show “Color Me Country” in 2020. It aims to showcase the talent of Black, Indigenous, and LatinX voices in country. The title is an ode to Linda Martell’s trailblazing 1970 Album. Social media apps like TikTok have also been instrumental in creating space for Black, LatinX, Queer, and Indigenous country singers.
Modern Reckoning:
In July of 2023, contemporary country music star Jason Aldean released a music video for his new single, “Try That In a Small Town”. The video showed Aldean, a Tennessee native, standing in front of a Maury County Courthouse in Tennessee singing lyrics like "Cuss out a cop / Spit in his face / Stomp on the flag and light it up / You think you’re tough? / Try that in a small town".
"Cuss out a cop / Spit in his face / Stomp on the flag and light it up / You think you’re tough? / Try that in a small town"
The courthouse was the site of a 1927 mob lynching of Black teenager Henry Choate, and the video included montages criticizing the Black Lives Matter protests. While much of his fan base championed the song as a representation of small-town culture, others were outraged over the violence and hate Aldean’s video was encouraging, and the history of racism it seemed to ignore. CMT eventually pulled the video. In the wake of this scandal, Aldean saw a sharp rise in popularity. His career—which had been under fire before for his use of the N-word—serves as a case study for how country music’s history—its origins in a segregated society, popularity among Confederate sympathizers, and consistent connection to conservatism— continues to present itself today.
Country music is both a mirror and a molder of American society. Its history reflects a nation grappling with its identity, marked by contradictions of oppression and resilience, nostalgia, and progress. It serves as a reminder that genre is a construction by powerful capitalist forces. To recognize this is to recognize country music’s potential to celebrate and criticize history. From its origins in the struggles of minority and working-class communities to its contemporary reclamation by diverse voices, the genre continues to evolve and there is much work to be done.
As Tom T. Hall’s song, “Country Is” suggests, “Country is living in the city / knowing your people”. The essence of country music lies in its storytelling—an enduring testament to the complexities and shared humanity of evolving American life.
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